Chemistry Flashcards
528 flashcards across 65 topics
Why flashcards work for A-Level Chemistry
Cambridge A-Level Chemistry 9701 spans definitions (isotope, mole, enthalpy, Brønsted-Lowry acid), mechanism vocabulary (electrophilic addition, nucleophilic substitution, free-radical), and reagent specifics (Tollens' reagent, 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine, Friedel-Crafts catalysts). AS covers atoms, bonding, stoichiometry, kinetics and an inorganic survey. A2 adds organic mechanisms, electrochemistry, equilibria and analytical techniques.
Cambridge mark schemes credit candidates who use Cambridge's own terminology verbatim. "Electrophilic addition" earns the mark; "an attack by an electron-poor species" usually does not, even though the chemistry is the same. Flashcards make the official phrasing reflexive — you stop pausing to translate from your own words back to Cambridge's.
Top mark-loser this 9701 deck targets: forgetting state symbols and conditions in equations, confusing oxidation states, and mixing up "electrophile" vs "nucleophile" mid-mechanism. All are routine 1-mark losses across both AS and A2 papers.
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Every card uses an SM-2 spaced-repetition schedule (the same algorithm Anki uses). After flipping a card you rate your recall and the algorithm reschedules each card individually, so your study time concentrates on what you actually struggle with rather than what you already know. After about three successful Easy reviews and a 21-day-or-longer interval, a card is tagged mastered. Progress lives in your browser only — no account, no signup, no data sent anywhere.
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AS Level Year 12 / Grade 11 content
Unit 1: Atomic structure
Atomic structure explores the fundamental nature of matter, covering subatomic particles, isotopes, electron configurations in s, p, and d orbitals, and periodic trends in first ionisation energy. This unit features prominently in Paper 1 and Paper 2, often requiring students to deduce proton numbers or sketch the specific shapes of s and p orbitals for significant marks. Candidates frequently lose marks by failing to state that ionisation energy refers to one mole of gaseous atoms or by providing incomplete explanations for the specific dips in ionisation energy trends across a period.
Unit 2: Atoms, molecules and stoichiometry
This unit establishes the quantitative foundations of chemistry, covering relative atomic mass, the mole concept, Avogadro's constant, and the calculation of empirical and molecular formulas from reacting masses. These concepts are examined rigorously across Paper 1 and Paper 2, while also providing the essential calculation framework for titration results and yield determinations in Paper 3 practical assessments. Examiners frequently report that candidates lose marks for neglecting to use the correct number of significant figures or for failing to provide balanced ionic equations that exclude spectator ions as specifically required.
Unit 3: Chemical bonding
Chemical bonding investigates the electrostatic forces holding matter together, including ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds, alongside VSEPR theory for molecular shapes and intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonding. This unit is a major component of Paper 2, where students must produce precise dot-and-cross diagrams and explain physical properties like the anomalous density of ice compared to liquid water. Mark schemes often penalise candidates who describe intermolecular forces instead of intramolecular bonds when discussing boiling points or those who fail to mention the specific attraction between nuclei and a shared pair of electrons.
Unit 4: States of matter
States of matter examines the physical behaviour of substances, specifically focusing on the ideal gas equation and the contrasting lattice structures of giant ionic, giant molecular, and simple molecular solids. Examination frequently occurs in Paper 1 and Paper 2, requiring students to perform pV = nRT calculations and describe the arrangement of particles in substances like buckminsterfullerene or silicon(IV) oxide. Candidates often lose marks by neglecting to convert temperature into Kelvin for gas constant equations or by incorrectly suggesting that simple molecular structures have high melting points because of strong covalent bonds rather than weak intermolecular forces.
Unit 8: Reaction kinetics
Reaction kinetics examines the factors influencing the speed of chemical reactions, incorporating collision theory, activation energy, the Boltzmann distribution, and the mechanisms of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis. The unit is a staple of Paper 2 structured questions and provides the experimental framework for "disappearing cross" or gas collection tasks in Paper 3. Candidates often lose marks by drawing Boltzmann distribution curves that touch the x-axis at high energy or by failing to explicitly link increased temperature to a higher frequency of effective collisions rather than just more total collisions.
Unit 9: The Periodic Table: chemical periodicity
Chemical periodicity focuses on the recurring patterns in physical and chemical properties across Period 3, including variations in atomic radius, melting points, and the reactivity of oxides and chlorides. This unit is a major contributor to Paper 2 marks, requiring students to write complex equations for the reactions of Period 3 elements with water and to describe the acid-base behaviour of their oxides. Marks are often lost when candidates fail to specify the amphoteric nature of aluminium oxide or provide incorrect observations for the reaction of sodium or magnesium with cold water.
Unit 11: Group 17
Group 17 covers the trends in volatility and reactivity of the halogens, the thermal stability of hydrogen halides, and the specific redox reactions involving halide ions and silver nitrate. These topics are frequently examined in Paper 2 structured questions and form a significant part of the qualitative analysis requirements for Paper 3 practicals. Candidates often lose marks by failing to use the term "disproportionation" when describing the reaction of chlorine with alkali or by incorrectly stating the solubility of silver halides in dilute versus concentrated aqueous ammonia.
A2 Level Year 13 / Grade 12 content
Unit 13: An introduction to AS Level organic chemistry
This introductory organic unit covers systematic nomenclature, functional group identification, and the fundamental reaction mechanisms including nucleophilic substitution and electrophilic addition. Although listed as an A2 foundations unit, it is essential for success in Paper 2 and Paper 4, where candidates must draw skeletal formulas and demonstrate the correct use of curly arrows. Mark schemes are particularly strict about the positioning of curly arrows, and students frequently lose marks for failing to start an arrow at a lone pair of electrons or a specific covalent bond.
Unit 14: Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons explores the chemistry of alkanes and alkenes, covering free-radical substitution, cracking, and electrophilic addition mechanisms, alongside addition polymerisation. This unit carries significant weight in Paper 4, often asking students to predict the major product of Markovnikov addition based on the stability of primary, secondary, and tertiary carbocations. Candidates frequently lose marks by omitting the essential condition of ultraviolet light for the halogenation of alkanes or by failing to provide the specific colour change observed when alkenes react with cold, dilute, acidified potassium manganate(VII).
Unit 15: Halogen compounds
Halogen compounds focuses on the synthesis and reactivity of halogenoalkanes, specifically detailing the SN1 and SN2 nucleophilic substitution mechanisms and the competing elimination reactions. This unit is a staple of Paper 4, where students must draw precise reaction mechanisms showing the movement of electron pairs and describe the different rates of hydrolysis. Candidates often lose marks by failing to distinguish between the inductive effects of alkyl groups in tertiary carbocations or by neglecting to mention that C–I bonds are weaker than C–Cl bonds during reactivity comparisons.
Unit 16: Hydroxy compounds
Hydroxy compounds explores the classification and reactions of alcohols, including their oxidation to carbonyls and carboxylic acids, dehydration to alkenes, and the formation of esters through condensation. These topics are central to Paper 4 organic synthesis questions and are frequently linked to qualitative tests, such as the production of a yellow precipitate in the tri-iodomethane reaction. Mark schemes often penalise candidates who fail to specify "acidified" when using potassium dichromate(VI) or those who confuse the requirements for distillation versus reflux when preparing aldehydes or carboxylic acids.
Unit 17: Carbonyl compounds
Carbonyl compounds details the properties and reactions of aldehydes and ketones, focusing on nucleophilic addition with hydrogen cyanide and the distinctive tests used for their identification. This unit is heavily examined in Paper 4, where candidates must provide detailed mechanisms for the formation of hydroxynitriles and interpret the results of Fehling’s and Tollens’ reagent tests. Examiners report that marks are frequently lost when students fail to describe the specific "orange-red precipitate" or "silver mirror" observations or neglect to mention the requirement for a KCN catalyst in addition reactions.
Unit 18: Carboxylic acids and derivatives
Carboxylic acids and derivatives covers the preparation and reactivity of organic acids and esters, including their neutralisation, reduction, and hydrolysis under acidic or alkaline conditions. This unit is a key feature of Paper 4, often requiring students to draw the products of esterification or to compare the relative acidities of carboxylic acids, phenols, and alcohols. Candidates frequently lose marks by failing to include the salt of the carboxylic acid as a product of alkaline hydrolysis or by incorrectly naming esters produced from branched-chain alcohols and acids.
Unit 19: Nitrogen compounds
Nitrogen compounds investigates the chemistry of primary amines and nitriles, focusing on their synthesis from halogenoalkanes and the subsequent hydrolysis of nitriles into carboxylic acids. This unit is frequently assessed in Paper 4, where candidates are expected to devise multi-step synthetic routes and explain the basicity of aqueous amine solutions. Marks are commonly dropped when students fail to specify that the reaction with ammonia must take place in ethanol under pressure or when they neglect to include the essential acidification step following the alkaline hydrolysis of a nitrile.
Unit 20: Polymerisation
Polymerisation focuses on addition polymers, such as poly(ethene) and PVC, detailing the identification of monomers, the deduction of repeat units, and the environmental impact of non-biodegradable plastics. This unit is examined in Paper 4, often through structured questions that ask candidates to represent the polymerisation of specific alkenes or to discuss the harmful products of their combustion. Marks are frequently lost when students fail to draw the continuation bonds extending through the brackets of a repeat unit or when they incorrectly identify the monomer from a complex polymer section.
Unit 21: Organic synthesis
Organic synthesis requires the integration of all organic units to devise multi-step reaction pathways, identify functional groups in complex molecules, and predict potential by-products. This unit is a major component of Paper 4, where candidates are challenged to solve synthesis problems by selecting appropriate reagents and conditions that do not interfere with other sensitive functional groups. Examiners frequently note that marks are lost when students suggest reagents that lack selectivity or when they fail to provide the full set of conditions, such as "reflux" or "dry ether," for specific transformations.
Unit 22: Analytical techniques
Analytical techniques introduces infrared spectroscopy and mass spectrometry as essential tools for identifying functional groups and determining molecular masses through m/e values and isotopic abundances. This unit is a core feature of Paper 4, requiring students to interpret spectra and use the [M+1] peak formula to deduce the number of carbon atoms in a compound. Candidates frequently lose marks by providing imprecise infrared absorption ranges that do not match the values in the Data section or by failing to account for the presence of chlorine or bromine isotopes in mass spectra.
Unit 23: Chemical energetics
This advanced energetics unit covers lattice energy, Born-Haber cycles, and the thermodynamics of solubility, alongside concepts of entropy and Gibbs free energy. These topics are central to Paper 4, where students must construct detailed energy cycles and perform calculations to predict the feasibility of reactions at various temperatures. Mark schemes are particularly strict regarding the direction of arrows in cycles, and students often lose marks for failing to convert entropy values from J to kJ when calculating the overall Gibbs free energy change for a reaction.
Unit 24: Electrochemistry
Advanced electrochemistry explores electrolysis, Faraday’s laws, and standard electrode potentials, incorporating the Nernst equation to predict how ion concentrations affect cell emf. This unit is a high-mark area in Paper 4, requiring students to calculate the mass of substances liberated during electrolysis and to deduce the feasibility of redox reactions using standard cell potentials. Candidates frequently lose marks by failing to use the correct number of electrons transferred in Nernst equation calculations or by incorrectly identifying the direction of electron flow in the external circuit of a simple cell.
Unit 25: Equilibria
This unit expands on equilibria to cover buffer solutions, solubility products, and partition coefficients, alongside the mathematical application of pH, Ka, and pKa. These concepts are rigorously tested in Paper 4, where students must perform multi-step calculations to determine the pH of a buffer or the concentration of a common ion in a saturated solution. Marks are often lost because candidates fail to account for the stoichiometry in Ksp expressions or because they provide incomplete explanations for how buffer solutions maintain a relatively constant pH upon addition of acid.
Unit 26: Reaction kinetics
Advanced reaction kinetics explores rate equations, orders of reaction, and the determination of rate constants through half-life and initial rates methods. This unit is essential for Paper 4 and Paper 5, where students must interpret graphical data to propose reaction mechanisms and identify the rate-determining step in complex processes. Examiners often highlight that candidates lose marks for providing the incorrect units for the rate constant or for failing to recognise that the half-life of a first-order reaction is independent of the initial concentration of the reactant.
Unit 28: Chemistry of transition elements
Transition elements focuses on the properties of d-block metals, including variable oxidation states, catalytic activity, and the formation of complex ions with monodentate and bidentate ligands. This unit is a significant part of Paper 4, where students must explain the splitting of d orbitals into non-degenerate sets and calculate the stability constants of various complexes. Candidates commonly lose marks by failing to include the lone pair in their definition of a ligand or by neglecting to state that transition elements must form at least one stable ion with an incomplete d sub-shell.
Unit 29: An introduction to A Level organic chemistry
This A2 organic introduction covers arenes, phenols, and acyl chlorides, focusing on their systematic nomenclature and the specific mechanisms of electrophilic substitution and addition-elimination. It is an essential component of Paper 4, where students must draw precise skeletal formulas for aromatic molecules and explain the stability provided by the delocalised pi system. Mark schemes are particularly strict about the representation of the benzene ring, and students frequently lose marks for failing to describe how substituents like –OH or –NO2 direct subsequent reactions to specific positions on the ring.
Unit 30: Hydrocarbons
This unit focuses on the reactions of arenes, specifically covering the nitration, halogenation, and Friedel–Crafts alkylation of benzene and methylbenzene. These topics are frequently examined in Paper 4, where students must provide balanced equations and detailed mechanisms for the electrophilic substitution of the aromatic ring. Candidates often lose marks by failing to specify the required temperature range of 25°C to 60°C for the nitration of benzene or by neglecting to include the essential iron or aluminium halide catalyst for substitution reactions with chlorine or bromine.
Unit 31: Hydroxy compounds (A Level)
This advanced unit examines the synthesis and reactivity of halogenoarenes, focusing on the differences between aryl and alkyl halides and the directing influence of various substituents on the aromatic ring. It is primarily tested in Paper 4, where students are often asked to explain why halogenoarenes are resistant to nucleophilic substitution compared to halogenoalkanes. Marks are frequently lost when candidates fail to mention the overlap of the halogen lone pair with the delocalised pi system of the benzene ring, which increases the carbon-halogen bond strength and makes hydrolysis more difficult.
Unit 32: Carbonyl compounds (A Level)
This unit details the formation of esters from acyl chlorides and the complex chemistry of phenol, including its acidity, nitration, and the production of azo dyes. These concepts are a staple of Paper 4, requiring students to describe the coupling of benzenediazonium chloride with phenol in alkaline conditions to form brightly coloured compounds. Candidates commonly lose marks by neglecting the critical temperature requirement of below 10°C for the formation of the diazonium salt or by failing to recognise the specific directing effects of the hydroxyl group on the benzene ring.
Unit 33: Carboxylic acids and derivatives (A Level)
This unit covers the synthesis of benzoic acid from methylbenzene and the reactivity of acyl chlorides in forming amides and esters via addition-elimination mechanisms. These topics are central to Paper 4, where students must explain the relative ease of hydrolysis of acyl chlorides compared to alkyl and aryl chlorides. Mark schemes often penalise candidates who fail to specify the room temperature condition for the hydrolysis of acyl chlorides or those who omit the essential byproduct of hydrogen chloride when reacting these derivatives with alcohols.
Unit 34: Organic nitrogen compounds
Organic nitrogen compounds explores the synthesis and acid-base properties of amines, amides, and amino acids, focusing on peptide bond formation and the behaviour of zwitterions. This unit is heavily featured in Paper 4, where candidates must predict the results of electrophoresis on mixtures of amino acids and explain the relative basicities of ammonia, ethylamine, and phenylamine. Examiners frequently report that marks are lost when students fail to show the correct charge distribution on an amino acid at high or low pH or incorrectly represent the structure of a peptide bond.
Unit 35: Polymerisation (A Level)
Polymerisation focuses on condensation polymers, such as polyesters and polyamides like Terylene and Nylon-6,6, detailing their formation through the elimination of small molecules like water or hydrogen chloride. This unit is a key component of Paper 4, requiring students to deduce repeat units from given monomers and identify the monomers present in complex polymer sections. Candidates often lose marks by failing to distinguish between the biodegradability of condensation polymers, which are susceptible to hydrolysis, and the inert nature of addition poly(alkene)s, or by neglecting to draw the necessary linkages correctly.
Unit 36: Organic synthesis (A Level)
This unit represents the peak of the A Level organic curriculum, requiring candidates to design and analyse multi-step synthetic routes for molecules containing multiple functional groups. It is extensively examined in Paper 4, where students must predict the properties of unknown compounds and devise efficient pathways while considering reaction types and potential by-products. Marks are often lost when candidates suggest reagents that would react with other sensitive groups within the molecule or when they fail to provide the full set of reaction conditions, such as catalysts or solvent requirements.
Unit 37: Analytical techniques (A Level)
Analytical techniques covers chromatography and advanced NMR spectroscopy, focusing on the use of Rf values, retention times, chemical shifts, and splitting patterns to deduce molecular structures. This unit is central to Paper 4 and Paper 5, requiring students to interpret complex proton and Carbon-13 NMR spectra and explain the interaction of components with stationary and mobile phases. Candidates frequently lose marks by failing to accurately apply the n + 1 rule for splitting patterns or by neglecting to mention the role of tetramethylsilane as the standard for chemical shift measurements.
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Other Cambridge A-Level flashcard decks
Browse flashcards for the other A-Level subjects we cover. Each deck is built to the same Cambridge syllabus structure.